How Sleep Has an Affect on Your Happiness Positive Psychology Peer Reviewed
Introduction
Subjective happiness, also referred to as subjective well-existence, is recognized every bit a fundamental human goal around the globe (Helliwell et al. 2021). It refers to a general evaluation of an individual'south life, characterized past satisfaction, positive affect, and depression levels of negative affect (Diener 2000). Subjective happiness can be measured using a cocky-administered questionnaire (VanderWeele et al. 2020). From the perspective of psychology, the symptoms of mental wellness and mental illness practice not reflect reverse ends of the same continuum; rather, they are loaded onto two separate, but related, continua (Westerhof and Keyes 2010). Over the past decade, increased involvement in positive psychology has cast a spotlight on subjective happiness, in contrast to the precedent dominant disease model which focuses on risk factors and negative outcomes of mental illness, such as disease and low (Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi 2014). Subjective happiness has likewise gained increasing attention amongst policy-makers and researchers from various fields (Ryan and Deci 2001). Subjective happiness has been found to be beneficial to health in multiple ways. For example, information technology has been reported to supress the activation of stress hormones and inflammatory markers (Steptoe et al. 2008). Loftier levels of subjective happiness have been linked to lower incidence of cardiovascular diseases and diabetes (Steptoe et al. 2005), and contribute to longevity (Diener and Chan 2011). Subjective happiness also helps people achieve success in different aspects of working life: it improves decision-making, work engagement, chore performance, and job satisfaction (Boehm and Lyubomirsky 2008; Fisher 2010; Halbesleben and Wheeler 2008; Kadoya et al. 2020); information technology promotes inventiveness and innovation (Kamel et al. 2017; Tenney et al. 2016); and it reduces exhaustion, absence from work, and intention to leave (Gavin and Stonemason 2004; Halbesleben and Wheeler 2008; Tenney et al. 2016). Organizations accept, therefore, recognized the importance of employees' well-being and increased investment in programs to promote it (Ton 2014).
Diurnal preference, also referred to equally circadian typology or morningness-eveningness, plays an of import role in our daily lives and sleep patterns. Chronotype is a similar concept to diurnal preference, but chronotype is based more on an private's behaviour rather than preference (Bauducco et al. 2020). Diurnal preference is determined primarily past an private's genes (Barclay et al. 2014; Jones et al. 2019) and is also related to age, sex activity, and surrounding environs (Duffy and Czeisler 2002; Fischer et al. 2017). A person'southward diurnal preference is situated on a spectrum with morning time-blazon (morningness) and evening-type (eveningness) every bit the opposite endpoints; the bulk of people, however, belongs to an intermediate-blazon (Adan et al. 2012; Horne and Ostberg 1976). Morning-type people prefer to go to bed early at night and wake up early in the morning, and physically and mentally perform well early on in the day. This makes it easier for them to adapt to social activities that require them to wake up early, such as going to school or working (Wittmann et al. 2006). On the contrary, evening-type people prefer to stay up late at night and wake up later in the morning. They have to wake up earlier than they would want and perform their job at non-preferred times of the twenty-four hour period. A growing number of studies revealed that evening-type in itself could exist a risk factor for diverse concrete diseases and all-cause mortality (Allada and Bass 2021; Knutson and Von Schantz 2018; Reutrakul and Knutson 2015). Eveningness is also related to diverse types of mental disease (Bauducco et al. 2020; Cox and Olatunji 2019; Kivelä et al. 2018; Melo et al. 2017; Snitselaar et al. 2017; Taylor and Hasler 2018).
In recent years, epidemiological research on the relationship between positive aspects of mental health and diurnal preference has been accumulating (Biss and Hasher 2012; Jankowski 2012; Tan et al. 2020). Cyclic rhythm and related physiological functions, such as melatonin and cortisol secretion and deep body temperature, showed clear group differences by diurnal preference (Adan et al. 2012). Similarly, positive touch on has diurnal variations depending on the person's diurnal preference (Murray et al. 2009). Jankowski and Ciarkowska (2008) reported that those who are morning-types experience better mood in the morning and consequently during virtually of the day; while evening-types exhibit poorer mood in the morning time. Miller et al. (2015) employed an ecological momentary assessment method in good for you middle-aged adults and demonstrated that evening-types experienced delayed timing of peak positive affect (PA) and blunted amplitude of PA compared to morning time-types. Compared to eveningness, several key factors which foster or protect subjective happiness are reported to be related to morningness, such as higher satisfaction with life (Randler 2008), health-related quality of life (Suh et al. 2017), emotional intelligence (Antúnez et al. 2013), resilience, optimism (Antúnez et al. 2015), emotion regulation (Antúnez 2020), locus of command, conscientiousness trait (Jackson and Gerard 1996; Lenneis et al. 2021), and physical activity (Vitale and Weydahl 2017). In sum, these results support a positive association between morningness and a loftier level of subjective happiness, and as well between eveningness and a depression level of subjective happiness.
The machinery linking the diurnal preference to subjective happiness is yet to be established. However, several plausible mechanisms have been proposed (Bullock 2019), including slumber, circadian rhythm, wellness behaviours, perceived stress, developmental process, personality trait, social connectedness, and genetic explanations. For example, evening-types may take a lower level of subjective happiness due to social jetlag, defined as the discrepancy betwixt internal and external life rhythms (Jankowski 2017; Wittmann et al. 2006). In general, the business starting time fourth dimension is set up at a time when morning-type people are most probable to perform at their best. Obviously, better arrangement of morning-types to social activities in the morning is likely to foster a higher level of subjective happiness than it would for evening-types (Díaz-Morales et al. 2015). Evening-types among the working population are under societal pressures to adjust their daily rhythms, non by their ain preference, just times prepare by working circumstances. As a result of the discrepancy of the sleep-wake cycle between workday and day off, evening-types are more likely to exhibit shorter sleep duration, daytime sleepiness, poor subjective slumber quality, more sleep disturbance, and long weekend sleep than their morning-type peers (Bakotic et al. 2017; Fernández-mendoza et al. 2010; Kitamura et al. 2010; Merikanto et al. 2012; Soehner et al. 2011; Vollmer et al. 2017; Wittmann et al. 2006). Aside from diurnal preference, the relationship between slumber and human well-existence is well documented in the literature (Baglioni et al. 2010; Jackowska et al. 2011; Meerlo et al. 2008; Steptoe et al. 2008). Ong et al. (2017) conducted a systematic review and concluded that there was a consistent correlation between sleep and PA in non-clinical populations, and there was likewise a bi-direct relationship betwixt them. Therefore, it can be causeless that the evening-types endure from the twofold blow of poor daytime adaptability and sleep problems, resulting in a low sense of subjective happiness.
However, within the evening-type people, at that place are private differences in their sleep characteristics: some of them are gratis from sleep bug. Researchers have been working to unravel the complex human relationship between morningness-eveningness, sleep characteristics, and psychosocial functioning (Bakotic et al. 2017; Horne et al. 2019; Lau et al. 2017; Roeser et al. 2012). For example, Tavernier and Willoughby (2014) focused on the private differences of slumber characteristics inside the morn- and evening-types and classified the subjects (aged 17–25 years) into five subgroups (e.g., forenoon-poor slumber group, and evening-practiced sleep group) by latent class assay. Their two-year longitudinal written report suggested that intrapersonal aligning, including depressive symptoms, daily hassles, and cocky-esteem, was associated more with differences in slumber characteristics, than with diurnal preference itself. Their results suggest that slumber may accept a moderating outcome in explaining the link betwixt diurnal preference and human being well-existence. However, physical conclusions most the role of sleep equally a mechanism underlying the link between diurnal preference and subjective happiness accept not been fatigued. I reason for this is that few studies take used objective indicators. Due to the discrepancy between subjective assessment and objectively measured sleep (Jackowska et al. 2011; Lockley et al. 1999), it is important to employ an objective assessment to reduce methodological bias. Further, objective measurement of slumber also helps to provide a behavioral footing for the diurnal preference. Although polysomnography is the gilt standard for objective slumber evaluation, it requires participants to adhere electrodes to their head and sleep on a bed in hospital. Actigraphy, however, has the reward of making it possible to measure sleep indicators in the participants' normal lives. Ong et al. (2017) likewise indicated the limitation of inadequate control of confounders such every bit psychological distress and self-rated health in the investigation of the link between subjective happiness and sleep. Perceived stress level, physical activity, and other lifestyle habits should besides be considered when investigating the effect of diurnal preference (Haraszti et al. 2014).
Thus, our general aim in the current study was to deepen the understanding of the role of slumber characteristics in the relationship between diurnal preference and subjective happiness among the working population. Nosotros were interested in analysing whether and, if so, the extent to which sleep characteristics moderate the human relationship between diurnal preference and subjective happiness. We predicted that participants' subjective well-being would be positively related to morningness and too to improve sleep status (improve subjective sleep quality, less sleep disturbance, less sleep quality, lack of weekend oversleep, longer sleep duration, or higher slumber efficiency). Moreover, we expected that slumber characteristics could moderate the effects of diurnal preference on subjective happiness. According to Tavernier and Willoughby'due south written report (2014), we hypothesized that good sleep characteristics would attenuate the link betwixt eveningness and poor subjective happiness; conversely, poor sleep characteristics would benumb the link between morningness and good subjective happiness. In testing these hypotheses, we conducted a moderation analysis using information of Japanese workers excluding those with a medical history of mental illness or sleep disorders. Information technology should exist noted that the level of subjective happiness in Nihon ranked 56 out of 149 countries, a relatively low ranking among developed countries (Helliwell et al. 2021). Nihon is also ranked highly for short sleeping duration (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Evolution Gender Data Portal 2021). Men in their 30s and 40s reported their work as the virtually meaning cause of sleep deprivation (MHLW 2020). Thus, we believe that studies on the association betwixt subjective happiness and sleep is especially relevant in this population. Furthermore, Nihon has a different socio-cultural groundwork than Western countries, where the majority of positive mental wellness research have been conducted to date. Because socio-cultural background influences the level of subjective happiness (Inglehart and Klingemann 2000), positive mental wellness needs to be examined among Japanese populations likewise. The findings of our study could have clinical implications for maintaining and enhancing the well-being of workers from a chronobiological approach.
Method
Information collection
The current study is an exploratory assay using data from the SLEPT Written report (SLeep Epidemiology Project at the University of Tsukuba) (Morita et al. 2020). In the SLEPT Study, we conducted a cross-sectional survey from 2016 to 2017, in which data were collected through a self-administered questionnaire, participants' sleep diaries, and a waist-worn actigraphy device (used for i week). The results of medical examination were besides obtained from those who gave their consent. The target population was workers from four different workplaces in Nippon: a national university with an affiliated hospital, a national institute, and a company research institute based in Ibaraki Prefecture, and a wellness care company located in Tokyo. On average, their basic working hours were approximately 8 hours and began at 08:30 h. Flyers, posters, workplace grouping east-mails, and online workplace bulletin boards were used to recruit participants. In addition, some of the participants were introduced by the research staff or other participants. There was no monetary reward for participation. A total of 785 workers participated in the study. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants. Subsequently, 4 participants withdrew their consent, and their data were deleted. The estimated participation charge per unit was approximately 5–10%. The written report protocol was approved by the Medical Ethics Committee of the University of Tsukuba (approval number: 1065).
Subjective happiness
In this written report, a single-particular measure of subjective happiness was used. Because this survey had more than 100 questions, we aimed to reduce the burden on the participants and increment compliance by assessing their well-being through a single question. It has been reported that a single-item questionnaire measuring subjective happiness have sufficient validity and reliability (Abdel-Khalek 2006). According to a survey conducted by the Japanese Chiffonier Office (2012), the participants answered the post-obit question, "Currently, how happy do yous experience?" with 5 response options (0: very unhappy, one: somewhat unhappy, 2: neither happy nor unhappy, three: somewhat happy, 4: very happy). Subjective Happiness was scored according to the number of response options and treated as a continuous variable, ranging from 0 to 4.
Diurnal preference
Diurnal preference was evaluated using the Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire (MEQ) (Horne and Ostberg 1976). The questionnaire is composed of xix questions addressing aspects of sleep habit such as an individual'southward preferred bedtime, preferred wake fourth dimension, or preferred fourth dimension for performing physically or intellectually demanding activities. Questionnaire scores range from 16 to 86 with higher scores indicating morningness, whereas lower scores indicating eveningness. In this report, Taillard et al.'s (2004) criteria was applied to determine three diurnal types using the MEQ score: evening type (16–52), intermediate type (53–64), and forenoon type (65–86). The criteria are considered to better fit a middle-aged population.
Sleep-related factors
The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) was used to assesses sleep quality and sleep disturbance over a 1-month menstruation (Buysse et al. 1989). The PSQI consists of nineteen items that assess seven components: subjective sleep quality, sleep latency, sleep duration, sleep efficiency, sleep disturbances, sleep medication usage, and daytime dysfunction. PSQI scores of ≥6 bespeak the incidence of sleep disturbance. Because some components of the PSQI overlapped with variables measured with the actigraphy or the Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS), for the subsequent linear regression analysis, just ii of the 7 components of the PSQI were used: subjective slumber quality and sleep disturbance. Subjective slumber quality was scored using a single question item asking participants to charge per unit their overall sleep quality over the past month, scored equally follows: very expert (=0), adequately good (=1), fairly bad (=ii), and bad (=3). Slumber disturbance was scored using ix items that ask participants virtually the frequency of disruptive sleep events such as nocturnal enkindling, nocturnal urination, breathing difficulties, etc., with scores for each item ranging between 0 and 2 points. Higher full scores indicate poorer subjective sleep quality and higher frequency of experiencing slumber trouble. Sleepiness was assessed using the ESS (Johns 1991, 1992). The ESS includes 8 questions on habitual likelihood of dozing or falling asleep, with each item scored with a 4-point rating calibration (full scores ranging from 0 to 24). ESS scores ≥11 point the incidence of significant sleepiness. Weekend oversleep was assessed using a single-item question. The participants were asked "Practice you tend to sleep much longer on holidays (free days) than on weekdays (work days)?" with "No" or "Yes" as the response options. Those who answered "yes" scored 1 and those who answered "no" scored 0.
Objectively measured sleep parameters were obtained using an actigraphy device (MTN-220, ACOS Co Ltd., Nagano, Japan) worn on the participant's waist. The participants also kept a sleep diary and recorded their sleep and wake condition for 7 consecutive days. The overall matching charge per unit betwixt the born accelerometer of the device and polysomnography is reported to be 84.vii–86.ix% (Enomoto et al. 2009; Nakazaki et al. 2014). The program SleepSignAct (KISSEI COMTEC Co Ltd., Nagano, Japan) was used to curate the information. The slumber onset time (h), wake time (h), total sleep fourth dimension (min), and slumber efficiency (%) were calculated by combining the data from sleep diary and the actigraphy. During the 7 days that the participants wore the actigraphy device, it was not possible to identify which day was a workday or free day; thus, mid-sleep times on workdays or gratis days, which reflect objectively-measured sleep debt could not exist separately calculated. Instead, an boilerplate mid-sleep time for the vii days was calculated. In this study, only the longest sleep duration within 24 h was used; naps were not considered.
Other explanatory factors
Cocky-rated health was assessed by the question "Would yous say that your wellness for the last calendar month or two is … " with five options: very good (=0), proficient (=ane), fair (=2), bad (=three), and very bad (=4). Psychological distress was evaluated based on Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K6) scores (Furukawa et al. 2008; Kessler et al. 2002; Sakurai et al. 2011). The K6 contains 6 question items on depression and anxiety, with each detail measured on a 4-betoken rating scale. The K6 was treated equally continuous variable by adding the scores of vi items (total range from 0 to 24).
Potential confounders taken into consideration were lifestyle habit and chronic occupational stress. Items regarding factors of lifestyle habit were dichotomized, including exercise habit (yes = "at least 30 min, twice a week, for one year" or no = "other") (MHLW 2020), drinking habit ("less than once a week" or "more than once a week"), and smoking habits ("not-smoker" or "current smoker"). Chronic occupational stress equally perceived by the participants was assessed using the Cursory Scales for Chore Stress (BSJS) (Nishikido et al. 2000). The BSJS is a xx-item questionnaire developed based on the need–command–support model. The reliability and validity of this calibration has been reported (Hori et al. 2020; Takahashi et al. 2019). The questionnaire asked participants to "select the response that most closely matches your feelings with regard to the descriptions about your current working circumstances." Responses were rated on a 4-point scale (from i = "disagree" to four = "agree"), and the mean scores (range = 1–4) were calculated for vi subscales: quantitative workload, qualitative workload, interpersonal difficulties, reward from work, task control, and social support. Higher scores of the one-time three subscales indicated college augmentation of occupational stress. Higher scores of the latter 3 subscales indicated higher mitigation of occupational stress.
Statistical analysis
Of the 781 participants, those with missing values for the variable of interest, and those with factors that could crusade sleep patterns to depart significantly from the usual conditions expected for good for you full- and solar day-fourth dimension workers aged under 60 were excluded from the analysis. A total of 304 were excluded according to the following criteria: lack of data on self-administered questionnaire (n = 21), lack of sufficient data or non-compliance on actigraphy measurement (n = 29), 60 years and older (n = 61), shift or night workers (n = 106), and working 29 hours or less final week (n = 54). Next, those who were undergoing treatment for mental illness (schizophrenia, mood disorders, etc.), sleep disorders such as insomnia or sleep apnea, or regularly taking antidepressant, methylphenidate, or any slumber medication were excluded (n = 30). Lastly, those who answered they were "very unhappy" were exclude (northward = 3). Due to their longest sleep duration and highest sleep efficiency, the relationships between subjective happiness and sleep parameters showed J-shaped curve. This exclusion allowed united states of america to clearly interpret subsequent moderation assay results. In sum, data from 477 workers (205 males and 272 females) were eligible for analysis. The historic period distributions (mean ± standard difference [SD]) were 42.6 ± x.iv years for males and 41.1 ± 9.eight years for females.
Because at that place are differences between male and female person regarding sleep blueprint, diurnal preference, and level of subjective happiness (Adan and Sánchez-Turet 2001), information were analysed separately by sex. Spearman's rank correlation test was used to calculate correlation coefficient subjective happiness, MEQ score, and sleep-related factors. The descriptive statistics for continuous variables are shown equally medians, and first and third quartiles, because all the continuous variables in this manuscript except MEQ score, total slumber time, sleep onset time, and wake time had a not-normal distribution according to the results of the Shapiro-Wilk examination. The linear correlation between level of subjective happiness and each other variable was confirmed.
To place associations betwixt subjective happiness and MEQ score, and to test the moderation hypothesis, a serial of hierarchical linear regression analysis was performed. Subjective happiness score was used as the dependent variable. In the step i, the forcedly entered explanatory variables were age, cocky-rated health, and K6 score. In step two, a frontward stepwise selection method was used (likelihood ratio) for the three types of lifestyle habit and the half dozen subscales of chronic occupational stress to accommodate for possible confounders. In footstep 3, MEQ score was additionally forcedly entered equally an explanatory variable. In footstep 4a-h, one of the slumber-related parameters were entered: (a) subjective sleep quality, (b) sleep disturbance, (c) ESS score, (d) weekend oversleep, (e) full slumber fourth dimension, (f) sleep onset time, (g) wake time, or (h) sleep efficiency. In stride 5, interaction betwixt MEQ score and each of the sleep-related variables was added to examination the moderation effect. To reduce multi-collinearity, the sleep-related variables were centered on their means before computing the interaction terms.
All statistical tests were two-tailed, with p values of <0.05 considered statistically pregnant. IBM SPSS for Windows (version 26.0; IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, Us) was used for all analyses.
Results
Tabular array i summarizes the respondents' sociodemographic characteristics, history of chronic diseases and lifestyle. According to Taillard et al.'southward (2004) criteria, twenty.5% of male workers were classified as morning-type, 46.3% as intermediate-type, and 33.two% as evening-type. For female workers, morning-, intermediate-, and evening-types were fifteen.iv%, 50.0%, and 34.six%, respectively. Average midpoint of sleep for the 7 consecutive days by sex (male/female) were 02:34 ± 0:53 h/02:32 ± 0:52 h for morning-types, 03:27 ± 0:46 h/03:15 ± 0:47 h for intermediate-types, 04:20 ± 1:00 h/04:11 ± 0:54 h for evening-types, respectively (data not shown in Tables). In addition, average sleep duration (min) for the 7 consecutive days by sex (male/female) were 316.00 ± 54.29/339.sixteen ± 63.88 for morn-types, 315.08 ± 47.38/339.61 ± 54.59 for intermediate-types, 314.92 ± 56.08/335.29 ± 52.65 for evening-types, respectively. At that place were no statistically significant differences among the diurnal preference for both male person and female person regarding physical activity, smoking, drinking addiction, and the 6 subscales of occupational stress.
, Table 1. Characteristics of the subjects by gender
Tables ii and iii evidence the results of Spearman'south rank test for male and female workers, respectively. MEQ score was significantly correlated with subjective happiness but in female, but not in male. For both male and female, subjective happiness was correlated with subjective slumber quality. In male, higher MEQ score which indicates morningness was significantly correlated with lower subjective sleep quality, less slumber disturbance, and weekend oversleep. In female person, higher MEQ score was significantly correlated with lower subjective slumber quality, higher ESS score, and weekend oversleep.
Table 2. Median, IQRs, and correlations among subjective happiness, MEQ score, and slumber-related factors (male)
Tabular array 3. Median, IQRs, and correlations among subjective happiness, MEQ score, and sleep-related factors (female person)
Table four summarizes the results of a moderation analysis for male workers. In step 2, reward from piece of work and social support were added through the stepwise choice. As shown in the results of step 3, MEQ score was not significantly correlated with subjective happiness. In that location were no statistically significant associations between subjective happiness and slumber-related variables, nor between subjective happiness and interactions of sleep-related variables and MEQ score. Subjective happiness remains statistically significantly associated with self-rated health, reward from piece of work and social support in step 5a-h.
Tabular array four. Results of a series of moderation analysis, subjective happiness as dependent variable (male)
Table five shows the moderation analysis results for female. In pace 2, just reward from work was added through the stepwise choice. Self-rated health was no longer associated with subjective happiness in footstep 2. MEQ score persisted to have a statistically meaning association with subjective happiness from step 3 through step 5a-h. Nosotros observed a statistically significant association between subjective happiness and sleep efficiency. However, none of the interactions of sleep-related variables and MEQ score were significantly associated with subjective happiness. The association between subjective happiness and MEQ score hardly changed with the addition of the interaction terms in step 5a-h. Subjective happiness remains statistically significantly associated with K6 score and advantage from work in step 5a-h.
Table 5. Results of a series of moderation analysis, subjective happiness equally dependent variable (female)
Discussion
The aim of our study was to investigate the link between diurnal preference and subjective happiness among working adults, adjusting for various slumber parameters. We assessed sleep parameters both in subjective and objective ways. The main contribution of the current study is providing further evidence for the human relationship of morningness with subjective happiness. This conclusion has been established mainly through inquiry in Western countries. Nosotros have added to the existing literature by, for the first fourth dimension, partially confirming the same results for workers in Japan. We also found that subjective happiness was associated with higher slumber efficiency after controlling for self-rated health and psychological distress symptoms in women. Further, we did non find a moderating outcome of sleep parameters with the association betwixt diurnal preference and subjective happiness.
Before interpreting the results, nosotros need to keep in mind the characteristics of the study population. We focused on healthy full-fourth dimension, daytime, workers in Japan. In the analysed sample, there was a higher per centum of women. More than than half of the men were classified every bit professionals/technicians, i.e., academic researchers or healthcare professionals. In dissimilarity, close to ii thirds of the women were clerical workers. Women slept longer than men. At that place was no difference in sleep duration betwixt morning-, intermediate-, and evening-types. MEQ scores showed that men were more likely to be morning-types than women; however, the midpoint of sleep was slightly before in women than in the same blazon for men. This is largely in line with Fischer et al. (2017) who reported that, subsequently the age of 40, women develop an earlier chronotype than men. Studies have shown that the evening-types who live in a morning-oriented society are more likely to display characteristics that are negatively associated to their operation and health (Wittmann et al. 2006). Miller et al. (2015) suggested that delayed peak PA experienced by evening-types could attenuate their sense of advantage. However, in the current population, we did not find pregnant difference in lifestyle addiction or in the 6 subscales of occupational stress, across the morning-, intermediate-, or evening-types. Therefore, it is unlikely that their diurnal preference makes a neat difference in adapting to their work. Regarding the timing of the survey, information technology should be also noted that our survey was conducted before the COVID-19 pandemic, when teleworking was not widespread in Nihon.
Although the relationship betwixt diurnal preference and subjective happiness was replicated in female person workers, we did not find a pregnant human relationship in male workers. As shown as the change of R2 in Table 5, diurnal preference explained about 3% of the variance for subjective happiness in women. The magnitude of diurnal preference is in line with previous studies, which reported small to moderate partial correlations (Díaz-Morales et al. 2013; Drezno et al. 2019; Jankowski 2012; Randler 2008). We reconfirmed these findings and complemented them via both subjective and objective measures which allowed us to observe the individual'due south diurnal preference and also their beliefs. Possible explanations for the differences by sexual activity in the clan between diurnal preference and subjective happiness could exist derived from traditional gender-related social roles. In Nippon, women are typically responsible for duties within family life such as household chores and childcare; thus, we can hypothesize that female workers are under more pressure level than male workers to arrange their rhythm to a morning lifestyle. In dissimilarity, such traditional gender roles are likely to favour male person workers with evening preference, considering they tin can pass the forenoon duties, such equally making breakfast, to their female person spouses (Díaz-Morales and Sánchez-López 2008). While women with morning preference tin cope with this situation, those of an evening-blazon would find this arrangement difficult. Some other possible caption for our findings is that a big percentage of our male participants were academics, who, relatively speaking, have some discretion with regards their work schedule. In addition, the trait of conscientiousness, common to academics, could likewise explicate the null outcome, because such personality trait could decide, and mediate their subjective happiness (Drezno et al. 2019). Our results underline the importance of considering sex when assessing the role of diurnal preference. The weakness of our study is that we did not investigate each participant's roles and life at home, such as marital status, kid-rearing, or whether their spouse was working. A person's work schedule and how much discretion they have thereof, and their personality are also of importance. Future written report should assess both those life- and work-related factors to better understand the relationships between a worker'south subjective happiness with their diurnal preference.
In our hierarchical regression analysis, we found that the higher level of subjective happiness observed in female person workers was significantly associated with college slumber efficiency. No pregnant association was found with the other sleep parameters (subjective slumber quality, sleep disturbance, sleepiness, weekend oversleep, full sleep time, sleep onset time, and wake time). In male person workers, none of the sleep parameters were associated with subjective happiness. Our issue is not consistent with the existing literature, which widely support the bidirectional relationship between better slumber and well-being in a healthy population. Ane possible explanation for the mostly cypher finding in the current study is that we adjusted for self-rated health and psychological distress symptoms, equally recommended by Ong et al. (2017). Past doing so, we were able to dominion out the possibility that the relationship between subjective happiness and sleep reflects not merely physical health or the absence of negative affect (Winefield et al. 2012). Furthermore, nosotros attempted to elucidate the moderating part of sleep characteristics in the relationship between diurnal preference and subjective happiness. Opposite to our hypothesis, pregnant interaction between diurnal preference and any of the slumber indices was absent for both male and female workers. This outcome suggests that the link betwixt diurnal preference and subjective happiness is contained of sleep, which is contrary to the study among emerging adults by Tavernier and Willoughby (2014). The difference in the characteristics of the respective study populations may explain the divergence. Our result should exist interpreted while taking the healthy worker effect into account. There were few extreme morning-/evening-types, and few extremely poor sleepers among the participants. Those who could not go on upwards with the socially-expected rhythm of their piece of work would have quit their jobs before our survey. Thus, the participants of the electric current written report were considered to have adapted to their socially-expected rhythms, i.due east., they did not suffer very much from social jetlag. In addition, information technology is possible that the participated eye-anile volunteers were health-conscious people. Therefore, our methodological limitations might somewhat underestimate the bear on of sleep on the relationships between subjective happiness and diurnal preference.
Directions for future research
Although the mechanism is still unclear, our results partially back up the idea that evening-type workers feel lower levels of subjective happiness than those of a morning-type. Our findings suggest a need for more research aimed at improving subjective happiness among workers of an evening-type. One possible strategy to meliorate subjective well-being of evening-types would be tailoring their work schedules to adjust the individual's diurnal preference (Roenneberg and Merrow 2016). It is well-documented that intercommunications between individuals and their working surround, such as task control and social reward, are potent predictors of employees' well-existence (de Jonge et al. 2000; Hori et al. 2019; Yang et al. 2008). If workers can accommodate their piece of work schedule to arrange those times when they feel more than active and focused, it is expected that they would feel a higher sense of accomplishment, which in turn would foster a sense of happiness. Another possible strategy is teleworking. For evening-types, reduction of commuting time past working from home on occasion might exist benign as they could enjoy free time in the morn. This would also allow them to bask the benefits of outdoor sunlight (Burns et al. 2021) and exercise. Sławińska et al. (2019) proposed that CrossFit training during the morn hours, when those of an evening-type are unremarkably in a low mood, can boost their PA. Since the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, the Japanese regime has been encouraging companies to increment their implementation rates of telework or staggered-fourth dimension commuting. The boilerplate telework implementation rate in Nippon by the end of 2020 was approximately 23% and was particularly higher in the Tokyo metropolitan region and lower in provincial cities (MLIT 2021). However, at this time, such measures are mainly aimed at infection control and are not implemented with the individual's diurnal preference in mind. There is room for improvement in the rate of telework implementation, especially in provincial cities. Future research focusing on the link between diurnal preference and work-related outcomes could lead to justifying a flexible work way or teleworking suited to an individual'southward diurnal preference, regardless of the pandemic.
Limitations
Several limitations of the present report should be noted. First, because of the cantankerous-sectional pattern, we were unable to place causal relationships; therefore, longitudinal studies are needed to clarify these causal relationships. 2nd, the apply of single-particular questions may have less validity than multi-particular questions such as subjective well-being scales. Third, we could not obtain information of all confounders that could affect the link between subjective happiness and diurnal preference, which include educational level, marital status, child-raising, life events, piece of work-schedule, personality and so on. (Drezno et al. 2019; Easterlin 2001, 2003). Hereafter studies should take those factors into account. Fourth, regarding the sleep assessment, nosotros did not consider mean solar day-to-day variations in slumber or midpoint of sleep on workdays. Lemola et al. (2013) reported that day-to-day variability of slumber elapsing, more than the boilerplate sleep duration, is related to subjective well-being. Midpoint of sleep on work days might play an important role in determining worker'south well-being (de Souza and Hidalgo 2015). Future research of the role of sleep on worker'southward well-being would benefit past assessing those factors. Lastly, the lack of representativeness of our written report population is a weakness of our study. We approached conveniently accessible workplaces to gather participants, and the response rate was low. As described in a higher place, our participants are mainly from bookish institutes. Generalizing the results of this report to other professions and countries requires caution.
Decision
In sum, the findings of the electric current study demonstrate that morning preference was related to college levels of subjective happiness than evening preference in female workers in Nihon. In that relationship, we found no moderating effect of sleep parameters (subjective sleep quality, sleep disturbance, daytime sleepiness, weekend oversleep, total sleep time, sleep onset time, wake fourth dimension, and sleep efficiency) in both male and female workers. Although a causal relationship cannot be elaborated, our study provides important insights towards further understanding the link betwixt diurnal preference and subjective happiness. Futurity research is needed to address the mechanism linking diurnal preference and subjective happiness in order to implement effective measures to maintain and better the mental health of our workforce.
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Source: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/07420528.2022.2028801
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